Experimental studies on single cells have shown that application of pulsed voltages, with pulse duration of 300 ns and an electric field on the order of 10 kV/cm, cause sudden alterations in the intracellular free calcium concentration, followed by immobilization (“stunning”) of the cell (E. S. Buescher and K. H. Schoenbach, “The Effects of Submicrosecond, High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields on Living Cells—Intracellular Electromanipulation,” IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 10, 788-794 (2003)). The duration of immobilization, which can range from a few seconds to tens of minutes, is dependent on the amplitude of the applied voltage, but also on the pulse duration. For aquatic organisms, the optimum pulse duration for stunning was found to be approximately 300 ns (A. Ghazala and K. H. Schoenbach, “Biofouling Prevention with Pulsed Electric Fields,” IEEE Trans. Plasma Science 28, 115-121 (2000)).
There is a need in the art to obtain maximal, but reversible bioeffects, for neuromuscular disruption. Likewise, there is a need for facilitation of neuromuscular functions in diseases and conditions of decreased excitability.